About Beads and Figurines
The transition period in which the Bronze Age shifted to the Iron Age is most commonly referred to in archaeology as the Bronze-Iron Transition Age (900 BC to 200 AD).
In the later part of the Bronze Age, people travelled further, explored new regions, and made new discoveries. It is a common belief among historians that travellers and traders from Greece, Rome, Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, Central Asia, India, China, and East Asia travelled to the Southeast Asian countries via land and sea routes. At that time, people in what is today’s Myanmar were still in the Bronze Age.
By coming into contact with these travellers and traders the local people must have adopted new technology and applied the new-found knowledge to their own work. It could be said that the Bronze-Iron culture commenced with its focus on glassmaking, alchemy and bead etching. One of the most significant discoveries was of mineral mines and semi-precious stones. Laboratory analysis has been performed on some of the remnants found and the materials were identified as carnelian, chrysophrase, chalcedony, agate, quartz, silicified wood, and glass.
The Bronze-Iron transition period is a remarkable phase in the history of arts and crafts in that it is a period in which a great number of significant developments were made. These include the use of semi-precious stones, etching, bleaching and dyeing, distinctive bead designs such as the line-decorated beads, the carving of figurines, and the bronze iron (bi-metallic) combination in tools. This can be seen, for example, in swords with bronze handles and iron blades. Therefore, it could be said that technological change was at its peak in this period. In the later part of the Bronze-Iron transition period, people started using gold in the form of nuggets, beads, jewellery, and gold teeth. This is the period which could be termed the Iron Age or pre-Pyu period.
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Location
The most important Bronze-Iron site in Upper Myanmar is Halin because evidence from excavation sites shows that it has been continuously settled from as early as the Bronze Age to the present day. Its importance is signified by the salt deposit on which the inhabitants depended for trade and livelihood.
The most prominent and significant region in Central Myanmar is the Samon Valley since the majority of the excavation sites are found in that area. Geographically, its location turns out to be the gateway to Southeast Asia.
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Bead Culture
The bead culture is the most prominent and advanced aspect of the Bronze-Iron transition period. The fact that beads are found in abundance at all burial sites implies that beads were worn by most people of that time. The popularity of beads could be due to the fashion of those days, but most probably it would have been associated with their faiths and beliefs. Similar beads have also been found in Tibet, India, Mesopotamia, and Southeast Asian countries. Some even suggest that beads were used at that time as trade beads.
Bead Materials
Bead materials are basically of two types: organic and inorganic. Organic materials comprise amber, fossilized wood, shell, coral, pearl, bone, and ivory. Inorganic materials include gold, silver, bronze, metal, glass, clay, terracotta, and semi-precious stone. Early beads were made of stone, talc, terracotta, shell, and bone. Later, plain and etched semi-precious stone beads appeared on the scene. Materials include carnelian, agate, chalcedony, chrysophrase, talc, quartz, jadeite, jade, amethyst, aquamarine, and glass.
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From numerous finished and quite a number of unfinished beads found at prehistoric sites of the Samon Valley, we can infer that those places were once major sites in the manufacture of ancient beads.
To date, raw materials like carnelian, chalcedony, chrysophrase, talc, quartz, amethyst, aquamarine, and agate can still be obtained in abundance from mineral mines in Bamaw, Mogok, Popa, Hba-ahn, Dawei (Tavoy), and many other sources in Myanmar.
Technology
The advanced technology of the Bronze-Iron transition period is apparent in their unique drill-hole technology which involved drilling very tiny holes, sometimes as small as 0.05 mm in diameter, from opposing sides and making them meet in the middle. The people of the Samon Valley could drill incredibly long, fine zigzag-shaped bores into beads of some length. This art seems to have been lost somewhere through the ages, and in this respect, today’s craftsmen cannot match their superb work without the help of sophisticated technology like laser beams.
Evolution of Bronze-Iron Bead Technology:
Stage 1: In the very early part of the Bronze-Iron period bead history, only plain beads made an appearance. Craftsmen of the Bronze-Iron transition period were already well acquainted with the technology for the shaping of stones from previous ages. Polishing was done when
the desired stone shapes were formed by filing and shaping. The quality of polishing by the Bronze-Iron people was so remarkable that their polished stones could maintain their lustre into modern times.
Stage 2: Although Bronze Age people had already started using beads of semi-precious stones in various shapes, it seems that the etching technology was still unknown to them. They were not able to etch designs on stone beads until the transition period. Following the plain beads, the bead surface was incised to make lines, dots, and circles on the beads of different shapes.
Stage 3: When the application of heat on stone became possible and commenced, powdered chemicals were used to fill the incisions and produce inlaid designs.
Stage 4: The technique of alkaline dyeing, bleaching and etching is one of the most outstanding achievements of the Bronze-Iron transition period. Possibly linked to the advancement of alchemy, heating techniques developed as powder-filled incision techniques diminished. Black or white chemical paste was applied to carnelian, agate or fossilized wood prior to heating the stones.
With the application of heat to a certain temperature, the granule composition of the silica group stone becomes loose. The molten chemical seeps into the loose spaces and becomes a permanent colouring which would last for thousands of years. This technology of dyeing and etching developed greatly with the advancement of alchemy. Dyeing was carried out using seven (hot) chemicals in various mixtures such as arsenic, yellow orpiment, copper sulphate (blue vitriol), sulphur, cinnabar, ammonia, and borax. They were used on agate, fossilized wood or the silica group for the black-on-white effect. For the black-on-red effect, the chemicals were used on carnelian.
Bleaching and etching made use of white-on-black or white-on-red designs only. White etching would appear on agate or carnelian. Four (cold) chemicals such as saltpetre (KNO3), natron (NaOH), quick lime (CaO), and salt (NaCl) were used. The basic concept behind dyeing and etching was most probably to represent contrasting ideas concerning faiths and beliefs such as ‘Yin and Yang’, ‘Sun and Moon’, ‘Hot and Cold’, ‘Male and Female’, and ‘Life and Death’. Contrasting colours such as black and white, red and white, and black and red, were used to represent all these concepts.
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Stage 5: Carnelian and agate were heated for white-etching and black-dyeing to make more sophisticated beads known as tricoloured leech beads; an outstanding design, most commonly of black and white, on orange carnelian pieces.
This amendable and noteworthy technology of the Bronze-Iron transition period is where bleaching, dyeing and etching were used together. First, thick black strips were dyed on red carnelian stones. After that, the etching of white lines was applied to the border of black and red so as to overlay the black border and make the design neat. These tricoloured etched beads are regarded as masterpieces of the period.
Some scholars associate them with dZi beads, but their relationship to the Tibetan dZi beads, which are highly valued among collectors, is unclear. Tibetans revered their etched agate dZi beads as having supernatural origins. As another evidence of the remarkable work of the craftsmen, rare animal figurine beads with etched designs were also yielded from the Samon Valley sites.
From the use of these techniques, five different bead categories emerged. One popular assumption is that the ancient beads of Myanmar are products of these techniques and so are related to the etched beads of neighbouring countries. NB, heating technology has served as the basis for all developments and innovations throughout history. It could be said that it is one of the major catalysts for today’s industrial and electronic development.
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Shape and Design
Beads may be categorized into two main types of shape and design: geometric and non-geometric.
Geometric shapes for the beads of that time are round, cylindrical, oblong, oval, tetrahedral, polyhedral, tabular, spherical, conical, bi-conical, crescent, rectangular, square, axe, disc, ring, and collared beads, among many others. Geometric designs on etched beads not only came into fashion but also had symbolic values. Numerous line-decorated beads are found at the prehistoric sites of the Bronze-Iron transition period in Myanmar.
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The line-decorated design with simple stripes of white on beads is believed to have been very popular among the people of those days.
Quite a few eye-design etched beads are also among the finds. These etched eye beads were used either as amulets or as decorative ornaments. The eyes supposedly represent the windows of the soul. Some believe that the eyes are the 'Gifts of God' that protect people against evil. The eye beads of the Samon Valley may have had a close association with the Tibetan dZi beads. The number of eyes on these Tibetan beads represents different meanings which contribute towards their significance.
Other noteworthy line designs such as zig-zag (horizontal waves), zip (fishbone), cross, dots, squares, angles, triangles, rhombuses, webs, mesh-wire, stars, and all sorts of symmetrical designs can also be observed on beads of all shapes.
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Non-geometric shapes include figurines, claws, flowers, twin lotuses, etc.
Figurines
Figurine beads play an important role in Myanmar culture because they portray the faiths, beliefs and symbolic values of the people more clearly than most other artefacts. It is believed that prehistoric inhabitants practised animism, worshipped gods and goddesses of nature and also believed in totemic cults. They created figurines probably as charms, amulets and keepsakes. Semi-precious stones were most commonly used where they were made into the images of human beings and animals.
Among the rare figurines, those in human form are believed to portray deities who may have been worshiped and prayed to for guidance, protection and wish fulfilment. Human figurines have been found in the Samon Valley only. Figurine beads play an important role in Myanmar culture because they portray the faiths, beliefs and symbolic values of the people. Lion and fish figurines have been found exclusively in the Samon Valley.
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Common Figurines
Most common are the figures of tigers, elephants, turtles and birds. The reasons for their popularity have not been determined, but it is thought to have been related to the values attributed to a particular creature, for example, tigers stand for bravery, elephants represent might, turtles longevity, and so on.
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Tiger
Excavated tiger figurines from the Samon Valley are mostly made of carnelians which have a very close morphological relationship to the Qin Dynasty (221 – 207 BC) 'Tally Tigers' of China. The belief and the use of tiger figurines may have derived from the Western Zhou Dynasty (11th to 8th century BC). Several tiger figurines have been unearthed from the ancient prehistoric sites in Myanmar. Among them is a tiger figurine with a cub in its mouth that stands out from the rest.
The difference between Samon and Chinese tiger figurines lies in the fact that Samon tigers were normally carved out of stone and the Chinese tigers are cast in bronze. In Samon, such figurines were used as beads due to the presence of bead holes, whereas no bead holes have been observed on Chinese tigers. Although there may be differences, the local carnelian tigers hint that the Samon Valley society already had trade connections with China, which continued into the Pyu era and hence to this day.
Elephant
Probably an image from animism in the first place because Buddhism was still unknown to the Samon people at that time. Later on, from the exchange of culture with India and other countries, their original beliefs must have merged with Buddhism or Hinduism.
Turtles
The images could have been derived from Chinese beliefs representing longevity.
Birds
Some of the figurines are assumed to be of the Chinese long-tailed phoenix which represents auspiciousness. Although there are few citations, this ancient bird is thought to have appeared in China as early as the Neolithic period. The image of the phoenix is said to have been observed on jade and pottery motifs decorating bronze as well as bronze and jade figurines. The image was assumed by many to have been a good-luck totem for the Chinese.
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Non-geometric designs
Glass bangles of the prehistoric era were used as ornament and burial paraphernalia since some have been found on the wrists of skeletons and some at burial sites. The colour of bangles differs in shades, providing proof that their glassmaking technology was highly sophisticated. Glass bangles are believed to have been added to stone bangles in the transition period.
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Carnelian beads with white line etching were found at ancient prehistoric sites of Mesopotamia, India, and Southeast Asia as well. Some of the etched carnelian beads such as the three centrepieces are of rare design.
In the later part of the transition period, iron replaced bronze for weapons and tools as it was found to be much harder. As far as metalworking and jewellery are concerned, people appeared to have managed to learn how to separate and purify metals, and they were able to extract gold and silver from other metals. However, there are also indications of cases where they melted gold nuggets or raw gold and used it as it was. Thus, gold and silver ornaments such as beads and jewellery were found in addition to the bronze ornaments in this latter part of the Bronze-Iron transition period. They also seemed to have discovered techniques for mercury amalgam gilding. Examples of this art are seen in small round gilded terracotta beads and gilded disconnected bronze bangles from the Bronze-Iron Age sites.
The most distinctive features of the Bronze-Iron Age are the tricoloured etched beads, etched animal figurines, and the use of gold and silver and gilding technology. With technology in bronze, glass, bead-making and metalworking, the later part of the Bronze-Iron Age/pre-Pyu period advanced from the culture of the transition period.
It was a period when pre-Buddhist beliefs were turning to a stronger belief in Buddhism. In terms of Samon culture, observing the material remnants, we can conclude that this culture had an inter-relationship with the Dian culture from today’s China (northern part of Myanmar). Local cultures influenced by cultures of the north and west were synthesized into the distinct Pyu culture of Southeast Asia. From there, the Pyu civilization emerged as the first dynasty era in Myanmar, giving birth to the first gold culture of Southeast Asia in the 1st millennium AD.
Excerpt from 'The Journey from Prehistory to the Pyu States in Myanmar' by Terence Tan for https://artsofsoutheastasia.com, 2021